Sergio Miguel Cedillo Fernández

Ancient Roman sexual behavior was defined not by modern ideas of sexual orientation, but by social status, power dynamics, and gender roles.... Popular modern ideas of uninhibited, chaotic public "Roman orgies" are largely exaggerations or moralizing distortions written by conservative ancient historians (like Tacitus or Suetonius) critiquing imperial decadence. Sexual attitudes and behaviors in ancient Rome are indicated by art, literature, and inscriptions, and to a lesser extent by archaeological remains such as erotic artifacts and architecture. It has sometimes been assumed that "unlimited sexual license" was characteristic of ancient Rome, but sexuality was not excluded as a concern of mos maiorum, traditional social norms that affected public, private, and military life. Pudor, "shame, modesty", was regulating factor in behavior as were legal strictures on certain sexual transgressions in both Republican and Imperial periods. Censors public officials who determined social rank of individuals had power to remove citizens from senatorial or equestrian order for sexual misconduct and on occasion did so. Mid-20th Century sexuality theorist Michel Foucault regarded sex throughout Greco-Roman world as governed by restraint and art of managing sexual pleasure. Roman society was patriarchal and masculinity was premised on a capacity for governing oneself and others of lower status, not only in war and politics, but also in sexual relations. Virtus, "virtue", was an active masculine ideal of self-discipline, related to Latin word for "man", vir. Corresponding ideal for a woman was pudicitia, often translated as chastity or modesty, but it was a more positive and even competitive personal quality that displayed both her attractiveness and self-control. Roman women of the upper classes were expected to be well educated, strong of character and active in maintaining their family's standing in society. With extremely few exceptions, surviving Latin literature preserves the voices of educated male Romans on sexuality. Visual art was created by those of lower social status and of a greater range of ethnicity, but was tailored to taste and inclinations of those wealthy enough to afford it, including, in Imperial era, former slaves. Some sexual attitudes and behaviors in ancient Roman culture differ markedly from those in later Western societies. Roman religion promoted sexuality as an aspect of prosperity for the state and individuals might turn to private religious practice or "magic" for improving their erotic lives or reproductive health. Prostitution was legal, public and widespread. "Pornographic" paintings were featured among art collections in respectable upperclass households. It was considered natural and unremarkable for men to be sexually attracted to teen-aged youths of both sexes, and even pederasty was condoned as long as younger male partner was not freeborn Roman. "Homosexual" and "heterosexual" did not form primary dichotomy of Roman thinking about sexuality, and no Latin words for these concepts exist. No moral censure was directed at man who enjoyed sex acts with either women or males of inferior status, as long as his behaviors revealed no weaknesses or excesses nor infringed on rights and prerogatives of his masculine peers. While perceived effeminacy was denounced, especially in political rhetoric, sex in moderation with male prostitutes or slaves was not regarded as improper or vitiating to masculinity, if male citizen took active and not receptive role. Hypersexuality, however, was condemned morally and medically in both men and women. Women were held to stricter moral code, and same-sex relations between women are poorly documented, but sexuality of women is variously celebrated or reviled throughout Latin literature. In general Romans had more fluid gender boundaries than ancient Greeks. 📷 : Fragment of roman mosaic depicting erotic scene, unearthed at Portus, near Ostia Antica, Rome #archaeohistories