Emmanuel JOSEPH

Cerebral T waves. These are deep, wide, symmetrically inverted T waves on an ECG. The differential diagnosis for deeply inverted T waves includes: 🟢Coronary ischemia 🟢Metabolic derangements 🟢Hypertrophic and Takotsubo cardiomyopathies 🟢Left and right ventricular strain 🟢Digoxin and intracranial pathology

What is VTI (Velocity Time Integral) in echocardiography? VTI measures the distance a column of blood travels during systole through the LVOT. It’s a vital parameter to estimate stroke volume and cardiac output noninvasively. How is VTI measured? 1️⃣ Obtain an apical 5-chamber view (5C). 2️⃣ Place PW Doppler just below the aortic valve (at LVOT). 3️⃣ Measure the area under the velocity curve during systole➡️ that’s the VTI (in cm). Calculation of Stroke Volume (SV): SV = VTI × LVOT area LVOT area = π × (LVOT diameter/2)² Requires accurate LVOT diameter from parasternal long-axis view. Then, Cardiac Output (CO) = SV × HR ♦️Normal LVOT VTI: ~18–22 cm (adults) ▶️A low VTI often means reduced stroke volume, requiring further hemodynamic assessment.